Following the September 11, 2001 attacks, which changed the paradigms of international security, the term radicalization has gained special prominence in studies on terrorism. This concept allows for the study of the process that precedes the terrorist phenomenon, as well as the analysis of its causes in order to understand and mitigate it.

Jihadist radicalization in particular has posed a serious threat to state actors in recent decades. One aspect of this type of radicalization that does not typically receive much attention, despite being critical, is jihadist radicalization in prison environments. By penetrating the prison environment, this ideology exploits the vulnerabilities of inmates, fostering a fertile ground for its dissemination. 

In recent decades, the presence of individuals imprisoned for jihadist terrorism offenses in European countries has become an established relevant risk factor.¹ These inmates have the potential to act as charismatic leaders, capable of influencing and recruiting other inmates, which increases the threat within correctional facilities. Furthermore, interaction between already radicalized individuals can reinforce their own radicalization processes and strengthen the cohesion of potential internal networks.²

The analysis of this phenomenon is relevant to contributing to the design of effective policies in the fight against jihadist terrorism. In a globalized world characterized by fluid threats, cross-border terrorism constitutes a significant challenge for state actors. 

It is relevant to highlight the profile of individuals vulnerable to this phenomenon. Particularly vulnerable are those individuals who feel alienated, discriminated against, and marginalized within Western societies, who on many occasions perceive that the democratic values of these societies are not reflected in their lives.³ 

In countries like Spain, the profile of individuals subject to potential jihadi radicalization processes is that of young, non-convert males, first and second generation, from the middle class. Middle-low. They possess nationality but belong to families with Arab ancestry and are linked to previously radicalized individuals or relatives..⁴

In turn, some international events provoke feelings of indignation in the Muslim community, making some individuals more prone to adopting radical ideologies. EUROPOL⁵ reports that regional crises outside the European Union have a significant impact on European societies, including terrorist and violent extremist manifestations in member states.⁶ The conditions within the Muslim community or the policies of Western powers can also fuel this process. 

According to data recorded by EUROPOL, jihadist terrorism has emerged as the deadliest form of terrorism in the European Union, accounting for the highest number of arrests. At the same time, recidivism is a cause for concern. The data indicate recidivism rates of 4.5% in the United Kingdom, 9.7% in Spain between 2012 and 2019, and 16% in France between 2004 and 2007..⁷

French authorities reported that more than 500 individuals convicted of terrorism-related crimes are currently in French prisons, along with another 900 radicalized individuals (2018–2019). Furthermore, 60% of France’s 70,000 inmates are of Muslim origin and have criminal records, making them potential targets for jihadist radicalization.⁸ In addition, at the national level in Spain, 28% of those convicted or killed in suicide attacks between 2004 and 2012 were radicalized in prison.⁹

Correctional institutions are characterized by isolation, where a combination of social and environmental factors such as exposure to extremist networks and radicalized individuals, identity crises, or the reinforcement of radical ideological narratives converge. This creates a fertile ground for potential jihadist radicalization processes. Neumann, an academic and expert specializing in terrorism, radicalization, and political violence, highlights other factors such as the presence of individuals convicted of terrorism, the need for protection, the search for meaning and identity, and the desire to challenge a system that may be considered unjust..¹⁰

However, due to the current globalized context, radical narratives can also penetrate prisons through other channels. Some of these include radical chaplains who have not undergone a proper vetting and screening process, extremist propaganda categorized as religious material, cell phones introduced into institutions illegally, or social media..¹¹

Regarding structural challenges, some of the main ones include a lack of security checks in places of worship, radical imams, the volatile prison environment, and inadequate coordination and limitations of authorities in sharing information and intelligence..¹² It is also important to highlight that social and interpersonal relationships are the main cause of most prison conversions and that the biggest cause of institutional prison radicalization is prison overcrowding..¹³

If we add to this the lack of personnel, with a limited number of prison authorities to monitor a large number of inmates, it is highly probable that behaviors and potential recruitment efforts will go unnoticed. 

Hamm also states that social movements that develop outside of correctional institutions have a direct impact on the worldview of those who are inside them..¹⁴ As Dalgaard-Nielsen explains, social movements diagnose problems and assign responsibility, offering strategic and tactical solutions and providing narratives to convince potential participants to become actively involved..¹⁵ Thus, radicalization in prison can be understood as a reflection of tensions and conflicts present outside. In fact, there are authors like Mary Kaldor and Anja Dalgaard Nielsen, both experts in the field of security studies, who conceptualize the Islamist movement as a social movement with global dimensions.

Charismatic leaders¹⁶ They can be both individuals convicted of terrorism and individuals who are radicalized, even without having been directly involved in a violent act. One example of these are radical emirs, who constitute a potential threat. 

Charismatic leaders represent the determining factor that facilitates or promotes jihadist radicalization in prisons, so their role in this process should not be ignored.

These individuals are capable of framing the frustrations and claims of prisoners and establishing a narrative to which those dissatisfied with their situation adhere. Furthermore, they offer role models to inmates in situations of alienation, granting them the support they demand, playing a relevant role in proselytizing activities..¹⁷

Through this construction of a discourse that articulates and frames the prisoners“ discontent, charismatic leaders generate an ”us versus them“ narrative that attributes responsibility for perceived adverse events to external actors, thereby removing barriers to participation (as also happens outside of penal institutions). This dichotomous image creates a view of a world divided into two irreconcilable groups, where only those who belong to the ”us“ can defend the group's interests against ”them.". 

Kevin James can be taken as an example of a charismatic leader who, while imprisoned at New Folsom prison in California in 2004, was able to recruit a number of inmates and convince them to attack the “enemies of Islam,” in this case the U.S. government and Jews. He distributed propaganda within the prison and established cells outside of it. Furthermore, they planned the execution of an attack on a synagogue with external help, although this was neutralized..¹⁸ This exemplifies how in adverse situations, charismatic leaders are capable of eliminating barriers to participation and making their narrative resonate with external circumstances such as the foreign policy of Western countries. 

 However, despite identifying prisons as places that can foster jihadist radicalization, it is essential to point out that this only occurs under certain conditions, and not in a generalized way or in all contexts or institutions. 

Several individuals radicalized in prison settings have been responsible for some of the deadliest terrorist attacks in recent decades. This is the case of Abu Musab Al-Zarqawi, a prominent Al-Qaeda leader, who became radicalized after his incarceration in a Jordanian prison. 

According to some sources, Al-Zarqawi memorized large portions of the Quran during his time in prison, and was able to recruit a gang of criminals who later assisted him during his terror campaign in Iraq.¹⁹. This, in turn, illustrates the link between crime and terrorism, which should not be ignored. Al-Zarqawi already possessed a radical narrative prior to his imprisonment, but this was strengthened as a consequence of his time in prison. Some experts who interviewed those who were in the Jordanian prison with Al-Zarqawi at that time state that he was very focused and religiously motivated during his time in prison..²⁰

More recently, Cherif Kouachi, who committed the Charlie Hebdo attack in France, was also radicalized in prison, after contacting a charismatic leader, Djamel Beghal, a member of Al-Qaeda.²¹. Authorities claim Beghal's indoctrination had a significant effect on Kouachi. He was a Frenchman of Algerian descent, and during his time in prison, some individuals significantly influenced the change in his identity, reinforcing similarities between them.

These examples are only a small sample of reality, but they reinforce the idea of the threat posed by jihadist radicalization in the prison context, and the importance of states taking action in this regard. While countries like Spain include this threat in their national strategy²², and there are European-level initiatives to counteract it, better coordination is needed to address it properly.  

Jihadist radicalization in prisons is not merely a domestic phenomenon, but has profound implications in the realm of international relations, as the transnational nature of jihadist networks opens the possibility for radicalization in the prisons of one state to spread across borders, threatening the security and stability of societies globally.

Ultimately, jihadist radicalization in prisons is a complex phenomenon that transcends national borders and demands a comprehensive and coordinated response based on security and intelligence. The structural deficiencies of the prison system, the presence of charismatic leaders, and the influence of external geopolitical factors make it necessary for states to adopt robust preventive measures and share best practices. Understanding and acting during the early stages of the radicalization process not only strengthens national security but also contributes to a more effective international response to the persistent threat of violent radicalization.